Breakfast Consumption and Academic Performance

The current research article provided a comprehensive review of the association between work, academic performance and breakfast consumption with the aim of ascertaining whether eating breakfast had a significant effect on the two variables. The findings were based on a survey of 20 respondents from different ethnic backgrounds and age groups. The focus on breakfast in place of other meals was justified given that the early meal provided the human body with nutrients for cognitive function (Spence, 2017).

The present study was justified given that previous research findings had established that there was a considerable link between higher academic performance and morning meal uptake (Cooper, Bandelow, & Nevill, 2011; Sampasa-kanyinga & Hamilton, 2016; Spence, 2017). Another rationale for the survey was that academic performance was determinant of the socioeconomic status of the subject. For instance, the student’s academic performance determined his or her educational attainment and employability, which in turn determined the disposable income. Florence, Asbridge, & Veugelers (2008) observed that academic achievement of the students was linked to their health and education. The two variables had a significant effect on the social, economic status, lifestyle, and socio-psychological wellbeing of the subject; thus, breakfast uptake was a critical health concern. Regular morning meal consumption was defined as the uptake of food in the morning for at least five or more days each week (Maridakis, Herring, & O’Connor, 2009).

Literature Review

The present body of research evidence had not precisely elucidated the mechanism through which morning meals mediated academic performance. Nonetheless, there was reliable evidence that early meal consumption improved cognitive function, which in turn, developed academic achievement (Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton, 2016). Scientific theories indicate that morning meal uptake could improve the intelligence quotient among young schoolchildren. In fact, a study by Liu et al. (2013) affirmed that there was a definite association between early meal uptake and IQ based on the IQ test scores among children from different racial origins. Thus, the present survey would establish whether morning meals improved cognitive function in the study population.

In addition to the IQ and cognitive performance hypotheses, it was evident that skipping meals interfered with the blood glucose levels which in turn inhibited cognitive processing efficiency due to neurohormonal changes (Gómez-Pinilla, 2008). Historical investigation of the early man illustrated that feeding was an adaptive mechanism that had a significant effect on cognitive function and brain evolution that lead to the development of a broader skull [G1] [G2] (Gómez-Pinilla, 2008). Elevated blood glucose levels potentially mediated the impact of early meal consumption on work performance among adults; this view was informed by previous experiments which indicated that higher blood glucose levels were associated with higher Stroop test results (Cooper et al., 2011).[G3] [G4] [G5]

Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton (2016) observed that there was a marked improvement in academic performance among Canadian students who consumed breakfast compared to their counterparts who skipped morning meals. Besides, the study established that there was a high level of school connectedness – the belief among students that school’s management and teachers performed their duties to the best of their knowledge. The extent of school connectedness was considered to be an essential parameter given that it improved the student’s focus on academics.

The government had also appreciated the critical role of breakfast on academic performance through the Federal school breakfast program. The program had facilitated the provision of early subsidized[G6] meals to students from underprivileged backgrounds since 1966 (Corcoran & Schwartz, 2016). However, the program had a low success rate given that students in cities such as New York skipped morning meals despite the fact that it was freely available. In an attempt to improve morning meal uptake, learning institutions had adopted new measures including a meal in class policy in which early meals were availed in class rather than the cafeteria. A review of the effectiveness of early meals in the class program illustrated that it did not have a significant influence on the academic performance of the children; these findings were contrary to the outcomes reported by Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton (2016). The cause for the variation in the research findings was not elucidated. Additionally, it was established that the provision of early subsidized[G7] meals did not have a significant effect on the body mass index and obesity levels of schoolchildren; the observations were not in line with popular opinion which postulated that morning meals were linked to higher BMI (Corcoran & Schwartz, 2016). [G8] [G9]

A survey by Liu et al. (2013) affirmed that schoolchildren who consumed morning meals recorded better academic achievement, verbal and full-scale intelligence quotient test scores compared to children who ate breakfast rarely. According to Liu et al. (2013), the association was established to be significant even after taking into account gender, parental occupation, education, and residential location. Therefore, based on the findings it was postulated that breakfast consumption offered greater nutritional benefits that were not available to children who skipped early meals. Nonetheless, only nutrient-rich morning meals had a positive effect on cognitive function, work, and academic performance.

Nutrients such as omega three were proven effective in enhancing cognitive function through the release of up-regulating genes that were integral to synaptic function sustenance (Gómez-Pinilla, 2008). Besides, the consumption of coffee which is one of the standard beverages consumed in the morning can improve focus by stimulating mental function, which might result in better task performance (Maridakis et al., 2009). In addition to the consumption of stimulants and omega three fatty acids, Falkingham, Abdelhamid, & Curtis, (2010) noted that the consumption of foods rich in iron moderated cognitive function. Other surveys indicated that the use of dietary supplements containing unsaturated fatty acids improved the academic achievement of students with learning difficulties. In contrast, the consumption of foods rich in saturated fats resulted in the blockage of the molecular substrates that impeded neurological dysfunction and augmented cognitive processing (Liu et al., 2013). Therefore, based on the facts highlighted above it was hypothesized that breakfast consumption would only result in positive academic performance if the school children were fed nutrient dense, healthy morning meals.

In addition to the effect on cellular and genetic function, it was observed that breakfast provided an avenue for the young school children to interact with other family members. According to Liu et al. (2013), the social engagement among family members at the dining table enhanced cognitive abilities and brain development of the minors. The viewpoint was founded on the fact that interactions between minors and parents afforded the schoolchildren an opportunity to interpret and derive new insights from stories shared by adults; acquire new knowledge and vocabularies. Besides, it was the culture of families from higher social, economic backgrounds to consume breakfast regularly; then it was expected that individuals from such families attain excellent work and academic performance[G10] [G11] [G12] [G13] [G14]

Cooper, Bandelow, & Nevill (2011) investigated the impact of early meals on adolescent academic achievement. The survey[G15] [G16] population comprised of 12-15-year-old adolescents who were placed in control and the experimental groups in which the respondents were provided with breakfast on a daily basis. The effect of breakfast uptake on cognitive function was evaluated using the Stroop and visual search test and Sternberg paradigm. Besides, the blood glucose levels of the subjects were monitored following the uptake of morning meals. Study findings indicated that there was a substantial improvement in the accuracy of the visual search test. In contrast, the control group recorded low levels of accuracy (Cooper et al., 2011). The findings were consistent across different tests. Additionally, it was reported that the respondents attained higher levels of satiety – a lower incidence of tiredness and hunger helped the respondents to engage their mental faculties. The blood glucose levels were also influenced by [G17] [G18] the time – the concentration was naturally higher during early mornings compared to late mornings [G19] (Cooper et al., 2011). However, the above trend was not observed in the control group.[G20] [G21] [G22] [G23] [G24] [G25]

Wesnes, Pincock, & Scholey (2012) evaluated the role of breakfast uptake on cognitive function among minors in the 6-16 age group in the UK. The study findings were considered representative because they were based on 1,386 schoolchildren. The survey was informed by the fact that morning meal consumption had the potential to prevent the loss of episodic memory and attention. The effectiveness of early meal uptake was evaluated using the CDR system – a procedure that had been established to be effective in clinical trials. The specific measures that were employed to determine the cognitive performance of the subjects included picture recognition speed and sensitivity: choice reaction, time accuracy; digit vigilance and power of attention (Wesnes et al., 2012). The benefit of breakfast consumption was proven given that more false alarms were recorded among schoolchildren who missed breakfast. The ability to recognize images was also impaired in the control group. Besides, 7 percent decline in the accurate identification of targets was noted in the control group (Wesnes, Pincock, & Scholey, 2012).

Methodology

The study population comprised of 20 respondents from different age groups and races (Hispanics, Caucasians, African Americans, and Asians). Besides, an equal number of men and women were selected to determine whether there were any variations based on gender. All participants were required to confirm that they were participating in the study willingly. Besides, the respondents were obliged to provide accurate information regarding age, and ethnic origin. The selected respondents were randomly placed in experimental (class B) and control groups (class A). The random approach was employed to minimize bias. The control group and the experimental group were assigned identical sets of questions to measure their cognitive performance after breakfast consumption. The experimental group was provided with a fiber diet made of granola or cereal bars. The respondents had the freedom to choose either bar. In contrast, the control group was not provided with any food. After the consumption of the morning meals, the subjects were subjected to three tests to determine their cognitive performance namely the Stroop test, Sternberg paradigm, and the visual search tests. The selection of the three evaluation methods was justified because they had been employed in other studies (Cooper et al., 2011). The Stroop test and Sternberg paradigm involved the identification of color and item recognition, respectively (Scarpina & Tagini, 2017).

Results

The outcomes were depicted in Table 1. In particular, the male and female variables were coded as 2 and 1, respectively. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 in the age variable represented the following age groups 0-17, 18-25, 26-35, and >36, respectively. Additionally, the Caucasian, Hispanics, Asians, and African American races were coded 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. In experimental and control groups, one and zero represented fail and pass, respectively. An examination of the control group illustrated that most of the respondents failed the cognitive tests.

Table 1 Survey Results

Gender

Age

Race

Experimental

Control

2

2

2

1

0

1

2

2

1

0

2

2

4

1

1

2

2

1

1

0

1

4

1

1

0

2

4

1

0

0

1

3

2

1

0

2

3

4

1

0

1

3

2

1

0

1

3

2

1

1

Descriptive statistics, paired t-test and Pearson correlation tests were conducted to determine if early meal uptake had a positive or negative effect on the experimental group. Based on the paired t-test results depicted in Table 2 (a and b), it was established that there was a notable variation between the scores derived from the control and the experimental groups; morning meal improved cognitive performance in each of the three tests. In particular, t(9) = 4.583, p < 0.05. Based on the paired sample correlational test results, r = 0.167 and p = 0.645. The experimental outcomes were considered valid given that they were in line with the body of research evidence which indicated that morning meals improved cognitive function and academic performance.

Table 2a Correlation

N

Correlation

Sig.

Pair 1

Experimental & Control

10

.167

.645

Table 2b Paired T-test

t

df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean

SD

SEM

95% CI

Lower

Upper

Pair 1

Experimental - Control

.700

.483

.153

.354

1.046

4.583

9

.001

Discussion

Based on the experimental findings and the literature review, it was established that early meals enhanced brain function in the morning. However, based on the selected articles, it was established that the present body of research evidence was limited. One of the critical limitations was that most of the previous research findings focused on students; only a few studies highlighted the association between work performance and breakfast consumption in the working class population. The second limitation that was that no standard morning meal was provided to the respondents. For instance, Maridakis et al. (2009) conducted a study in which caffeinated drinks were part of the early meal offered to the respondents in the experimental group. Given that caffeine was a stimulant, it was hypothesized that the findings derived from the study were inaccurate because stimulants would automatically catalyze cognitive function despite the fact that they did not contain any essential nutrients. The conclusions obtained from the experimental simulation confirmed that breakfast consumption positively influenced both work performance and academic achievement.

The findings presented in the current research article contributed to the available body of research evidence given that it investigated the impact of morning meals on cognitive performance across different age groups. Based on the experimental outcomes it was postulated that early meal consumption increased the mental energy in the mornings. According to Maridakis, Herring, & O’Connor (2009), psychological energy improved the ability of the subject to execute both physical and mental tasks. In particular, morning meals elevated the blood glucose levels, which in turn, suppressed fatigue. Besides, satiety improved the level of focus because hunger and fatigue had the potential to distract the subject; thus, resulting in low work and task performance. Nonetheless, it was postulated that there was a need to investigate secondary factors such as sleep and satiety. The view justified given that sleep deprivation and satiety affected academic performance and task performance based on [G26] the survey results presented by (Maridakis et al., 2009). Besides, it was important to appreciate the effect of secondary factors that moderated academic performance. For instance, apart from morning meal consumption, academic performance was affected by the school's ranking, learning materials, quality of education, ethnicity, the health of the student and the socio-economic status of the family (Maridakis et al., 2009).[G27] [G28] [G29]

The present study confirmed that health and nutritional awareness was needed to improve the rate of early meal uptake. The view was informed by Øverby, Lüdemann, & Høigaard (2013) who noted that the consumption of morning meals comprising of snacks, sweets, soft drinks, and other processed foods increased the probability that the student will experience mathematical difficulties. Healthy and nutrient-dense foods such as vegetables, fruits and fish had a contrary effect on the respondents (Øverby et al., 2013). Additionally, the researchers established that there were substantial variations in healthy eating based on gender. For instance, male subjects in the survey consumed a higher proportion of unhealthy foods compared to the female subjects; the difference was significant (32 versus 53 percent), respectively. The consumption of unhealthy foods elevated the odds for learning and writing difficulties. Despite the fact that most of the female subjects consumed healthy foods, a majority of the girls skipped breakfast. Therefore, the consumption of healthy foods did not have a significant effect on their cognitive function (Øverby et al., 2013). Nonetheless, the researchers appreciated the fact that the outcomes were potentially biased because the survey was based on self-reported measures that were prone to over-estimation or under-estimation by the subject.

Economic Cost of Breakfast Skipping

Afeiche et al. (2016) developed an economic forecast of the socioeconomic losses associated with the lesser uptake of morning meals in Mexico. According to the findings, regular skipping of breakfast had substantial effects on the country's GDP. In particular, it was projected that the socioeconomic loses translated to $1,150 per schoolchild. The quantification of the losses was based on one percent of the student population in the 5-14 age group and the decline in academic performance and cognitive outcomes. Cumulatively, the losses were translated to 0.3 percent of the GDP or $4 billion (Afeiche et al., 2016). The economic cost was probably higher in the US given that only 36 percent of high school students and 34 percent of adults consumed morning meals on a regular basis (Kellogg’s, 2018). In contrast, 68 percent of school children consumed early meals in the UK (Campbell, 2010).

Conclusion

Based on the empirical research and the literature review, it was established that the rate of breakfast uptake was low despite that healthy morning meals mediated cognitive function and task performance. The nutritional composition of the breakfast meals was considered important given that processed foods did not enhance cognitive function. Therefore, it was imperative for parents and schools to prepare healthy morning meals. After taking into consideration the socioeconomic losses, it was necessary for the educational system stakeholders to devise innovative ways of improving the current levels of breakfast uptake. Besides, future studies should address breakfast uptake in the working class population.

References

Afeiche, M., Patron, A. P., Gentile-Rapinett, G., & Detzel, P. (2016). The economic burden of breakfast skipping in Mexico. FASEB Journal, 30(1).

Campbell, D. (2010). 32% of pupils skip breakfast before school, study finds. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from https://www.kelloggs.com/en_US/nutrition/breakfast-in-america.html

Cooper, S. B., Bandelow, S., & Nevill, M. E. (2011). Breakfast consumption and cognitive function in adolescent schoolchildren. Physiology and Behavior, 103(5), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.03.018

Corcoran, S. P., & Schwartz, A. E. (2016). The effect of breakfast in the classroom on obesity and academic performance : Evidence from New York City. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 35(3), 509–532. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam

Falkingham, M., Abdelhamid, A., & Curtis, P. (2010). The effects of oral iron supplementation on cognition in older children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutritional Journal, 9(4).

Florence, M. D., Asbridge, M., & Veugelers, P. J. (2008). Florence MD, Asbridge M and Veugelers PJ. J Sch Health, 78, 209–15.

Gómez-Pinilla, F. (2008). The effects of nutrients on brain function. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 9, 568–578. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2421.Brain

Kellogg’s. (2018). Breakfast in America. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from https://www.kelloggs.com/en_US/nutrition/breakfast-in-america.html

Liu, J., Hwang, W., Dickerman, B., & Compher, C. (2013). Breakfast consumption is associated with increased IQ in kindergarten children. Early Human Development, 89(4), 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.01.006

Maridakis, V., Herring, M. P., & O’Connor, P. J. (2009). Sensitivity to change in cognitive performance and mood measures of energy and fatigue in response to differing doses of caffeine or breakfast. International Journal of Neuroscience, 119(7), 975–994. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450802333995

Øverby, N. C., Lüdemann, E., & Høigaard, R. (2013). Self-reported learning difficulties and dietary intake in Norwegian adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 41(7), 754–760. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494813487449

Sampasa-kanyinga, H., & Hamilton, H. A. (2016). Eating breakfast regularly is related to higher school connectedness and academic performance in Canadian middle- and high-school students. Public Health, 145(2), 120–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2016.12.027

Scarpina, F., & Tagini, S. (2017). The Stroop color and word test. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00557

Spence, C. (2017). Breakfast: The most important meal of the day? International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 8, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2017.01.003

Wesnes, K. A., Pincock, C., & Scholey, A. (2012). Breakfast is associated with an enhanced cognitive function in schoolchildren. An internet-based study. [G30] Appetite, 59(3), 646–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.008

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