Species Extinction - The Global Societal Problem

Species extinction is a huge global issue that is currently occurring at a rate that is thought to be 1000 times higher than background rates, with some species literally vanishing every day. Experts believe that the globe is currently experiencing the sixth wave of plant and animal extinction, which is worse than the loss of dinosaurs over the last 65 million years. Apical extinction occurs at a rate of one to five species every year. In comparison to previous extinctions caused by events such as volcanic eruptions, asteroids, or alterations in global temperature, the current rate of extinction is primarily due to people. (Lindenmayer, Blair, McBurney, & Banks, 2014). Generally, 99 per cent of threatened species face the risk of extinction due to human activities that contribute to the loss of habitats, the emergence of exotic species, and global warming. When there is species diversity, there is ecological resilience, resulting in the ability of communities to cope with stress. Most conservation efforts have focused on protecting ecosystems such as rainforests and coral reefs but a comprehensive strategy needs to include fewer species such as grasslands, tundra, and polar seas which can contribute to irreversible impact on species if not controlled. For instance, there are 1000 species that have become extinct in the past 500 years, from forests in West Virginia and Merriam's elk in Arizona to grasshoppers in the Rocky Mountains (Lindenmayer, Blair, McBurney & Banks, 2014). Other species that have become extinct are passenger pigeon and Culebra Parrot in Puerto Rico. There are other thousands of species that have become extinct before scientists had the opportunity to describe them. In the United States, it is estimated that there are between 14,000 and 35,000 species that face the danger of extinction. This represents 7 to 18 per cent of flora and fauna in the US. The estimates of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) shows that approximately 3 per cent of described species worldwide i.e. 16,928 are threatened with extinction. In the assessment of the endangered species, the world is less likely to meet the goal of achieving a reversal of the extinction trend.

Background of the Problem

The problem of species extinction refers to a process where taxonomic units such as particular genus, subspecies, and family do not survive anywhere in the world. The extinction of species is a process that occurs irreversibly due to impossibility of getting the lost biological characteristic of the Earth (Sodhi, Brook & Bradshaw, 2009). Extinction of species may occur naturally or may be caused by catastrophes such as changes in global temperatures, the existence of chronic environmental stresses, ecological competition, diseases, or consumption by other organisms. A major period of extinction occurred in the Late Ordovician period when averagely 85% of species living in the marine environment died. In the first phase of this extinction, there were changes in nutrients availability caused by glacially-forced regression (Lindenmayer, Blair, McBurney & Banks, 2014). Oceanic circulation was stagnated and there was a rise in post-glacial temperatures which resulted into the second phase of extinction.

Extinction of species is perceived to take place through a number of mechanisms. The most common mechanism is the killing of animals by humans for a number of reasons such as food, adventure, and for the purpose of protecting property. The impact of human killing is associated with the extinction of 55% of the species in North American marine environment (Baillie et al., 2004). Previously, marine animals did not encounter threats caused by the wave of extinction to which species were subjected. Presently, there is great pressure on marine species since humans have the ability to travel over the sea. Species from the orders of Cetacea, Pinnipedia, and Sirenia are believed to have undergone extinction due to human activities (McLendon, 2016). Habitat disturbance is another factor that is associated with high rates of extinction of species. When the biological, physical, and chemical conditions of the ecosystem change, the ability of animals and plants to live on such areas becomes difficult. Physical changes that can occur in a marine environment include: trawl fishing, dredging, development of commercial facilities, and diversion of water. Chemical changes that can affect the natural habitats include: acidification of ocean, disposal of organic wastes, and the disposal of industrial and agricultural chemicals. The biological alteration that can result into extinction of species is the introduction of non-native species.

The third contributing factor to extinction of species is the change in climate which contributed to species extinction about 250 million years ago in a period referred to as the 'Great Dying' resulting into the removal of 95% of life on Earth. It is believed that due to a gigantic volcanic eruption, there was a release of carbon dioxide and methane which started in the deep ocean area, spreading to the upper layers and causing the deaths of almost all living creatures. The recent global warming is believed to contribute to the increase in water temperature beyond the required range for many species. Due to such changes, there were deaths of many primary consumers which were the main requirement for the sustainability of secondary consumers or tertiary consumers in the food web. Lower primary consumers in the food web have the ability to support primary consumers. The killing of major primary consumers is reflected in the reduction in plankton species which are required by grazing fish and sea mammals.

Statistical Data Regarding the Problem of Animal Extinction

According to Baillie, Hilton-Taylor & Stuart, (2004), species extinction is contributing to loss of up to 20% of plant species. A significant amount of loss of species has been attributed to global warming and the existence of ultraviolet radiations caused by the destruction of the ozone layer. The seriousness of the outcomes has resulted into the need for environmental policy makers to address the challenge of conserving the biodiversity. According to Sodhi, Brook & Bradshaw (2009), a major species that is threatened with extinction is the Leadbeater's Possum whose habitat has been destroyed by wild-fires and increased fell logging. The species is dependent in trees on which it creates its dens and nests. However, the montane ash tree on which it is dependent has been undergoing depletion. It takes approximately 120+ years for cavities to exist to create a habitat for the Leadbeater's Possum. The past history of forest shows that 1887 ha of land in the Alpine Ash region has been logged. The composition of old growth trees in the Alpine Ash forest is 0.37% while the remainder are still in growth stage at an age of 75 years younger than their ability to create dens for the Leadbeater's Possum. Due to increased logging of forests for logs that can be used for plumbing and the high incidences of forest fires, it has been suggested that Leadbeater's Possum is likely to be extinct due to inability to get a habitat.

McLendon (2016), states that the world is currently experiencing a major threat to wildlife which is likely to result into mass extinction after the demise of dinosaurs 65 million years ago. The report shows that there is an annual average decline of the world species by 2 per cent, which is likely to reach 67 per cent by 2020 if measures are not taken to protect the endangered species. This loss of wildlife has been majorly attributed to the destruction of habitats. The major contributing factor to the reduction of habitats has been unsustainable agricultural practices which results into a change in freshwater systems, a change in climate, the emergence of invasive species, and pollution. 48 per cent of freshwater species face the threat of wetland development and interrupted river flows. Due to the existence of invasive species, there is a greater danger to 25 per cent of species such as amphibians and increased emergence of fungal diseases which obliterates amphibians globally.

According to Worldwildlife.org, (2016), there has been a reduction in the population of animals such as; birds, mammals, and fish by 58 per cent between 1970 and 2012. There is a significant drop in the number of fresh water species with a reduction by 81% in the same period. The population of elephants is estimated to have declined by 38% between 1970 and 2012, frogs by 81% and fish by 36%. This rate of reduction is startling and risky too. If action is not taken, the Earth will become a difficult place to live in. it is required that we should consider the ways in we impact nature in the effort to achieve economic, business, and lifestyle objectives. When we share the association between humanity and nature, it will be possible to make major changes that enable thriving of life for the coming generations. These declines in populations of species are perceived to be a threat to their survival and have been contributed by loss of habitats which is a major contributing factor to the inability of animals to survive. The world is characterized by a number of commercial, developments, and energy protection activities which have a damaging impact on areas occupied by wildlife. The present food system has an impact on habitats in making for agriculture due to increased fishing practices in the oceans, resulting into pollution. According to WWF Living Planet Report, (2016), the population of jaguar is increasingly declining due to the destruction of their habitat in the Amazon region. The decline in the population of tigers presents a case of what habitat destruction can cause. The big cats have not been found in their historical range despite the increase in their number by 63 per cent since 2009 due to protection initiatives. Habitat destruction has been associated with increased agricultural activities which expand into forests which are the major habitats for the endangered species. However, there are still examples of rare wildlife that live near dense human population such as mountain gorillas located in islands of forests surrounded by humans. Their survival has been courtesy of conservation efforts aimed at promoting local tourism.

Solutions to the Problem

Control of Climate Change

According to Defenders.org (2008), control of climate change is a solution that can promote the conservation of wildlife and the prevention of extinction. A major solution that needs to be taken to address the global issue of species extinction is the implementation of climate change management practices such as reduction of emission of greenhouse gases. This will ensure the global temperatures do not rise and prevent the rise in ocean levels which has an impact on water distribution. The article also recommends the implementation of carbon capture practices as possible solutions to management if climate change so that atmospheric concentrations is stabilized. In America the debate on climate change reduction measures focuses on whether policies needs to be changed in the use of fossil fuels in the transport industry. The reliability of this article is based on the fact that it uses data from an organization that advocates for practices of sustainable conservation of wildlife and the prevention of climate change. The validity of the article is based on its use of experts' opinions which shows the likelihood of accuracy in presenting solutions that can be implemented to reduce the extinction of species. The strength of this article is its use of statistical measures to determine the current amount of greenhouse gases and how it impacts the endangered species and a solution that focuses on practices which can be easily implemented such as the use of renewable sources of energy. The weakness of the article is that it uses no empirical studies regarding the relationship between control of climate change and the survival of endangered species.

Figure 1. Scenarios of greenhouse emissions from 2000 to 2100 when national climate policies are excluded. Source Defenders.org (2008).

There are a number of both positive and negative ethical issues in relation to the control of climate change as a solution to extinction of species. The ethical positive issue is that it will result into the reduction of the global temperatures to the normal levels which will result into preservation of the polar regions and other areas which are inhabited by wildlife. The global composition of atmospheric gases will be suitable for the survival of microorganism, mammals, and birds, thus promoting their survival and the ability to increase in number. The negative ethical issue in relation to control of climate changes as a solution to extinction of species is that there will be a restriction on the exploitation of natural resources such as oil and their use in industrial activities, thus affecting the ability of humans to produce goods and services that meets their needs.

Habitat preservation

According to Elmqvist, Zipperer & Güneralp (2016), prevention of loss of habitats is a major solution which will result into the conservation of endangered species and prevent their extinction. The article recommends the implementation of biodiversity management strategies that promote the conservation of forests and areas covered with vegetation. It also recommends a regulated urbanization as a measure which will result into prevention of loss of biodiversity in areas which act as habitats for wild animals. The efforts towards an effective biodiversity management will be possible when there is a participation of stakeholders of different areas of specialization such as community organizations, planning entities, and government representatives. The collaborative efforts towards multidisciplinary involvement in the conservation of biodiversity will be possible due to the contribution from different stakeholders. The reliability of the article is contributed by the fact that it uses studies which were conducted by different authors as a measure of reaching solutions to the challenge of habitat management in preventing the loss of biodiversity. This enables comparison of the arguments and the points of views in order to arrive at a more effective solution to biodiversity management. The positive ethical issue in relation to the article is its emphasis on biodiversity management which is a practice that ensures protection of the living environment for the endangered species. The negative ethical issue is that the act of conserving biodiversity can result into limited ability of humans to undertake economic activities which sustain their lives such as expansion of agricultural practices. The validity of the article is due to its use of trends in the conservation of biodiversity in a longitudinal manner so that its relationship with the survival of endangered species can be understood. External validity of the study is improved by the suggestion of biodiversity management practices which can be easily applied to achieve the objective of protecting species which face the threats of extinction. The strength of the article in addressing the objective of preventing the destruction of habitats is its emphasis on regulated urbanization practices which constitute strategic approaches for preventing the destruction of vegetation that constitute the habitats for wildlife. It also emphasizes the consideration of ecosystem services such as urban forests development specifically within parks as important aspects of promoting the health and well-being of biodiversity. The weakness of the article is that it does not examine the measures of preventing the emergence of invasive species despite the effectiveness of this approach as a biodiversity management strategy.

Avoidance of Direct Killing

A study conducted by O'Donoghue & Rutz (2016) presents a suggestion of surveillance practices focusing on avoidance of killing of wildlife as a solution to extinction threats. It suggests the use of real-time poaching alert tags which can be used to create awareness regarding killing incident of endangered species such as rhinos by poachers. Another solution suggested is the use of smart electronics in monitoring wildlife such as the use of closed-circuit television (CCTV) as a measure of tracking the activities of poachers in order to prevent an attempt to kill wildlife. The use of CCTVs and tags provides an opportunity for coordinating information and transmitting alerts to satellites or ground receivers before the animals can be killed by poachers.

The positive ethical issue in relation to the practice of use of tags to track poachers is that the tagged animals will be highly protected from poaching and their likelihood of extinction will be low. The negative ethical concern is that the use of electronic tags may affect the comfort of the animals which may also make the threatened. The reliability of the article is based on the fact that it uses the most recently developed technologies that have been tested and tried to perform wildlife management practices. The validity of the article is demonstrated by its use of views of different scholars who support the implementation of electronic tags and CCTV in surveillance of wildlife thus preventing the problem of extinction. The strength of the article is that it emphasizes the use of electronic tags which can be easily implemented in tracking the attempt to poach wildlife. The weakness of the article is its little focus on the effectiveness of the electronic tags in identifying the poachers before the animals are killed.

Conclusion

The problem of extinction of species is still not well addressed despite the concerns such as increased introduction invasive species that cause destruction to the habitats, production of greenhouse gases, and destruction of forests for the purpose of agricultural activities and urbanization. A solution such as avoidance of killing of endangered species can promote conservation efforts for wildlife and reduce the impacts of poaching activities on animals. However, the current threats to endangered species of animals have been effectively identified and it will be possible to take the necessary measures to ensure no more species become extinct. This is subject to collaboration among governments, animals' conservation agencies, and environmentalists.

References

Baillie, J., Hilton-Taylor, C., & Stuart, S. N. (Eds.). (2004). 2004 IUCN red list of threatened species: a global species assessment. Iucn.

Defenders.org (2008). Reducing the Impact of Global Warming on Wildlife: The Science, Management and Policy Challenges ahead, [Online], available at: https://www.defenders.org/publications/reducing_the_impact_of_global_warming_on_wi ldlife.pdf , Accessed on November 13, 2017.

Elmqvist, T., Zipperer, W., & Güneralp, B. (2016). Urbanization, habitat loss, biodiversity decline: solution pathways to break the cycle. In, Seta, Karen; Solecki, William D.; Griffith, Corrie A.(eds.). Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change. London and New York: Routledge., 2016, 139-151. Available at: https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/2016/ja_2016_zipperer_001.pdf , Accessed on November 13, 2017.

Lindenmayer, D., Blair, D., McBurney, L., & Banks, S. (2014). Preventing the extinction of an iconic globally endangered species-Leadbeater's Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri). Journal of Biodiversity & Endangered Species.

McLendon, R., (2016, October). 11 Startling Stats About Earth's Disappearing Wildlife, Mother Nature Network, [online], available at: https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness- resources/blogs/11-startling-stats-about-earths-disappearing-wildlife , Accessed on November 13, 2017.

O'Donoghue, P., & Rutz, C. (2016). Real‐time anti‐poaching tags could help prevent imminent species extinctions. Journal of Applied Ecology, 53(1), 5-10.

Sodhi, N. S., Brook, B. W., & Bradshaw, C. J. (2009). Causes and consequences of species extinctions. The Princeton guide to ecology, 1, 514-520.

Worldwildlife.org, (2016). Living Planet Report 2016, World Wildlife Fund, [Online], available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/living-planet-report-2016 , Accessed on November 13, 2017.

Worm, B., Sandow, M., Oschlies, A., Lotze, H. K., & Myers, R. A. (2005). Global patterns of predator diversity in the open oceans. Science, 309(5739), 1365-1369.

WWF Living Planet Report, (2016, October). The Wildlife and the Food Connection: What You Need to Know, [Online], Available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/videos/the-wildlife- and-food-connection-what-you-need-to-know . Accessed on November 13, 2017.