Recruitment and Workforce Planning

The purpose of the literature appraisal was to outline the theoretical framework, practice gaps and challenges in workforce planning and recruitment. Besides, relevant models and theories were reviewed. The focus on recruitment and workforce planning was informed by the multifaceted benefits afforded by sustainable talent management policies (Christensen Hughes and Rog, 2008, p. 743; Iles, Chuai, and Preece, 2010, p. 179; Aguinis and Lawal, 2013, p. 8). A large body of research evidence indicated that corporations experienced challenges relating to talent management (Cooke, Saini, and Wang, 2014, p. 225). The research and practice gaps were attributed to inconsistencies between the academic and practitioner benefits, theoretical perspectives, tensions, and assumptions (Dries, 2013, p. 286). Therefore, the findings derived from the present study helped to bridge the gap between theory and practice and contribute to the sustainability of the HR strategies.

Recruitment

Recruitment is a process which facilitates the acquisition of “high talent” (Srivastava and Bhatnagar, 2010, p. 26; Meyers, van Woerkom and Dries, 2013, p. 305) The process is grouped into internal and external recruitment (DeVaro and Morita, 2013, p. 227; Bidwell and Keller, 2014, p. 1035); the latter is defined by the acquisition of human resources from other organizations while the former is limited to internal promotion.

Windolf’s Model: Flexible, Status-Quo, Autonomous, and Muddling Strategies

According to the Windolf’s model, employee recruitment strategies were grouped into muddling, status-quo, flexible and autonomous. Organizational intelligence and market power influenced the preference of one strategy over the other. Each strategy had a different impact on the characteristics of the firm’s employees (Fomunjong, 2013, p. 22). The selection of either approach has a unique effect on the research-practice gap.

The status-quo recruitment is informed by the need to acquire applicants with homogenous socio-economic and demographic qualities. Given the unique requirements, the process fundamentally relies on referrals and social networks of the human resource management team (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 15). Firms which pursue the above approach have low organizational intelligence due to the overreliance on conservative strategies. Nonetheless, the limitations are complemented by greater market power. In general, status-quo hiring was inappropriate because it constrained the firm's innovation capabilities and deprived it of the benefits afforded by autonomous recruitment (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 15). The flexible recruitment approach is the preserve of organizations with unsatisfactory market positions and poor working conditions (unequal pay and employment terms). Such firms recruit employees to help them to adjust to the new dynamics in the market.

Companies which opt for the muddling approach are placed in the low quadrant, and they are constrained by numerous shortcomings including the absence of professional competency and strategic thinking, which in turn result in higher turnover. The low average duty time is an indication of the absence of sustainable workforce planning systems (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 16). The autonomous recruitment was the most appropriate method for companies because it enhanced diversity in human resources, which contributed to high market power and greater organizational intelligence (Fomunjong, 2013, p. 23). Besides, human resources recruited through an independent process were motivated to perform given that their job security was not contingent on their social networks with the management.

The above hypothesis was founded on the fact that autonomous recruitment was dependent on third-party hiring agencies with open and competitive hiring processes (Fomunjong, 2013, p. 23); this facilitated the acquisition of heterogeneous applicants with higher competencies. The muddling, flexible and status-quo recruitment strategies were inherently limited because each was associated with lower organizational intelligence and market power. The fundamental elements of the Windolf model were depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Windolf recruitment model (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 42)

Utility Models

The Windolf recruitment was complemented by the utility models such as the resource-based view theory (Kraaijenbrink, Spender, and Groe, 2009, p. 10; Holtbrügge, Friedmann, and Puck, 2010, p. 439). However, unlike the Windolf recruitment model, the later involve advanced computations to determine the fiscal impact of the recruitment process (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 6). One of the core elements of the utility models is that they enable the organization to appreciate why specific recruitment strategies yielded higher firm-specific benefits compared to others. However, the model has its limitations. For instance, the large confidence intervals which define the model compromise its utility (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 6). Moreover, the utilization of the model requires the expertise of employees with advanced computational skills, which may, in turn, increase the cost of the recruitment process. Therefore, the Windolf model was more suitable for organizations with inadequate technical expertise and financial resources at their disposal during the recruitment process.

The Resource-Based View

The resource-based view model is essential in human resource practices. Holtbrügge, Friedmann, and Puck (2010, p. 439) established that the model was appropriate in guiding HR personnel to optimize human capital resources by providing a link between competitive advantage, organizational competitiveness, and the general system. One of the unique theories advanced by RBV was the belief that firms sustained their competitive advantage through the human resources who could not be substituted or duplicated by the competitors (Fomunjong, 2013, p. 27). According to the RBV of the firm, the recruitment process was central to the sustainability of the firm’s competitiveness due to the unique knowledge stocks and skills possessed by the employees.

The association between HRM and RBV was depicted in Figure 2. According to the figure, the recruitment process provided higher value through personnel marketing. Additional value benefits included task-specificity and heterogeneity – a core benefit of the autonomous recruitment process. Another potential value emanating from the recruitment process was the cost savings through the efficient utilization of the human capital with a potential spillover effect to the firm’s clientele (Orlitzky, 2009, p. 7). In addition, the projection of the employer’s image to the public in recruitment advertisements enhanced the firm’s inimitability.

The inimitability of the firm was sustained through internal recruitment processes. The unique strategies employed by the different organizations made the hiring process non-substitutable and sustained the inimitability of the corporation’s policies. Internal recruitment was characterized by causal ambiguity, social complexity and different timing (Holtbrügge, Friedmann, and Puck, 2010, p. 442). The hypotheses advanced by the RBV seem to suggest that the employment of the internal or external recruitment strategies afforded the firm with unique resources which could not be mimicked by its competitors. One of the critical limitations of the model was the fact that it adopted a simplistic approach. Nonetheless, the model was relevant to the retention of the employees through workforce planning.

Figure 2 RBV model of recruitment (Holtbrügge, Friedmann, and Puck, 2010, p. 442)

Strategic Recruitment Model

The strategic model posited that organizations recruited employees using the horizontal and vertical recruitment approaches. The choice of either model was contingent on the organizational context and strategies (Phillips and Gully, 2015, p. 1417). In contrast to the previous model, the SRM encompasses level analysis, human capital, SHRM, and the RBV. The multifaceted approach enables the organizations to invest in human resource research. Based on the research, the organization can accurately predict the attitudes and behaviors of the recruited employees. The approach ensured that recruitment process had an optimal contribution to the company’s goals.

The model elements depicted in Figure 3 seem to suggest that the approach had the potential of reducing the practice gaps. Such gaps were the hallmarks of the traditional recruitment models. The horizontal strategic recruitment was defined by the employment of a recruitment strategy based on the need to acquire specific inputs (strategy, resources, leadership and growth and culture) to facilitate the attainment of strategic execution, firm performance, and competitive advantage among other output (Phillips and Gully, 2015, p. 1417). On the other hand, the vertical strategic recruitment involved the transition of the value from the individual, to the team and finally to the organization.

Figure 3 Strategic recruitment model (Phillips and Gully, 2015, p. 1419)

Workforce Planning

Workforce planning encompasses the alignment of the employees’ competencies and skills with the organizational goals. The core objective of the process is to streamline the short-term and long-term goals and requirements with the HR strategy (CIPD, 2018a). The workforce planning process mediated the relationship between the corporate business strategy and talent management strategies as depicted in Figure 4. The necessity of workforce planning became apparent following the 2008/2009 global recession (Stokker and Hallam, 2009, p. 563); the meltdown necessitated the realignment of human resources in line with the diminishing financial resources. Thus, workforce planning had a direct impact on performance management, succession planning (Mcdonnell et al., 2010, p. 150), learning and development, and acquisition among other talent management strategies.

Figure 4 Workforce planning and organizational strategies (Beckett, 2017, p. 12)

Workforce planning comprises of five key facets namely, appointment, induction, employee motivation, employee engagement, and leadership fundamentals. The first phase (appointment) included the appraisal of the applicant’s qualifications, development of the recruitment methods and advertisement of the vacancy. In the subsequent phases, training, performance management, reward schemes, and assistance programs were initiated (Northern Territory Government, 2012, p. 14). Thus, recruitment was an essential aspect of workforce management. Each of the factors mentioned above contributed to the development of a sustainable model (Robinson and Hirsch, 2008, p. 3). The workforce planning model was depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Workforce planning (Robinson and Hirsch, 2008, p. 3)

Größler and Zock (2010, p. 829) observed that the workforce planning process could also be augmented by the adoption of the aging chain model to ensure that younger employees replaced the aging workforce. The process also enables the corporations to enjoy greater market and industry intelligence through the deployment of IT (Kapoor, 2010, p. 29; Wixom, Watson, and Werner, 2011, p. 61). In addition to the above-listed benefits, the process had the potential to enable the organization to minimize labor costs, enhance talent management, and proactively address the needs of their clients (CIPD, 2018b). Moreover, the process enhanced work-life balance and productivity.

Based on the literature, it was evident that government and private agencies had invested in workforce planning (Jacobson, 2010, p. 353; US OPM, 2010, p. 1). For instance, the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) in the UK had established a robust leadership and skills plan to facilitate the promotion of the employees to the senior management positions. The above strategy resulted in the development of a clear succession plan to ensure that the organization had sufficient employees who were trained on emerging themes during technical workshops and seminars (BERR, 2008, p. 91). The above-listed measures had contributed to the development of robust leadership capabilities within the organization and an improvement in the employee working relations.

Emerging Debates

New concerns have emerged regarding the validity and sustainability of the traditional workforce models. Such reservations were informed by the changing demographics (Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings, 2010, p. 56), fragmentation of the workforce, big data and automation of manual processes, diversity, career mobility, and multitasking. In addition to the above-listed factors, employer branding influenced the employee’s perception concerning the management (Edwards, 2009, p. 5; Wilden, Gudergan, and Lings, 2010, p. 56). The new dynamics had necessitated the adoption of strategic workforce planning which involved forecasting and addressing future HR challenges now (Howes, 2015, p. 3). In contrast to the traditional system depicted in Figure 5, the new model featured risk assessment, demand solutions ownership measures. The strategic workforce planning model was depicted in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Strategic workforce planning model (Howes, 2015, p. 3)

In addition to external hiring, the model advocated for leasing talent from consultancies and other agencies (Howes, 2015, p. 4). Following the recruitment process, the commitment was cultivated through higher value proposition to the staff. In contrast to other organizations which employed technology to attain greater mechanization to reduce the capital costs, strategic workforce planning called for the ingenious use of technology to enhance labor productivity.

Theoretical Models for Workforce Planning and Recruitment

The models and theories which were relevant to recruitment and workforce planning facilitated in the contextualization of the dynamics which defined human resource practices. The models under consideration included the system dynamic model and the strategic human resource management (SHRM) theory.

SHRM Theory

The primary construct of the SHRM theory is that organizations have to use their human resources to counter competition. The model comprises of ten elements namely staff support, strategic innovation, fixation on quality, flexibility and adaptation, creativity and innovation, decentralization, effective communication, management and employee commitment, strategic value choices, and the appreciation of employees as critical assets to the organization (Itika, 2010, p. 33). According to the model, the success of the human resources was contingent to the satisfaction of each of the above-listed provisions. The model was depicted in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Strategic human resource model (Itika, 2010, p. 33)

Strategic value choices principle recommends that the HRM should place greater emphasis on high-value processes which are fundamentally in line with the organizational strategy. Therefore, firms driven by creativity and innovation could be obliged to initiate higher rewards to catalyze innovation and risk-taking among employees (Anderson, Potočnik and Zhou, 2014, p. 1298). Therefore, even though the model proposed nine elements, it was up to the HR management to considered which aspects were relevant to the long-term objectives (Itika, 2010, p. 34). On the other hand, strategic integration underscored the merits of integrating the human resource practices with the general firm’s strategy. Employee commitment contributed to higher performance (Markos and Sridevi, 2010, p. 89; Chun et al., 2013, p. 853). The researcher posited that this could be achieved through rewards, teambuilding, and promotion.

System Dynamic Model

According to the system dynamic model, there should be minimal gaps in the recruitment and exit rates for the employees (Größler and Zock, 2010, p. 837). The elements which defined the model were depicted in Figure 8; it was deduced that on-job training should follow the recruitment process. The HR team should also monitor the rate of successful completion of the training, the number of trainees coached by one trainer and the population of employees who successfully graduated to the operational personnel level. The rate of recruitment, recruitment delays, exit rate and the average duty time each have an impact on the staff population. Although the model was initially developed to augment processes in the supply chain (Größler and Zock, 2010, p. 837), it was appropriate in the appraisal of the HR needs and the recruitment of new employees to replace the aging staff or others who had left the company.

Figure 8 System dynamic model (Größler and Zock, 2010, p. 837)

OPM Workforce Planning Model

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) had developed its own model of workforce planning as depicted in Figure 9. The model comprised of five core elements namely; the establishment of a strategic direction, evaluation of the skills gap, development of an action plan, the implementation of the strategy and monitoring and evaluation (US Office of Personnel Management, 2011, p. 3). The model was established to be appropriate in the delineation of the workforce requirements, HR gaps, communication strategies, appraisal of the milestones and solutions to the challenges facing the HR system. In addition to the models reviewed above, other generic models similar to those employed in the recruitment process were reviewed in the subsequent section.

Figure 9 OPM Workforce planning model (US Office of Personnel Management, 2011, p. 3)

The Human Capital Theory and Multilevel Theory

The human capital theory and the multilevel theory are interrelated because they advance similar constructs concerning the role of knowledge stocks in the employee recruitment process. The multi-level theory advanced new constructs regarding the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs). The KSAOs were founded on scientific literature which affirmed that knowledge, skills, and abilities mediated organizational performance due to higher autonomy and responsibility (Tenhiälä et al., 2016, p. 179). Similarly, the human capital model posited that human resources possessed innate abilities and skills which created value for the firm (organizational capital) (Fomunjong, 2013, p. 26). One of the unique aspects of the multilevel model was the hypothesis that human capital benefits were derived from cognitive and non-cognitive domains (Ployhart and Moliterno, 2011, p. 128). The knowledge stocks possessed by the employees constituted the cognitive domains. Other factors which encompassed the domain included generic experience, skills, and knowledge. On the other hand, the soft skills, personality, values, and interests constituted the non-cognitive domains. A combination of the two factors led to the development of context-specific KSAO as depicted in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Cognitive and non-cognitive KSAO (Ployhart and Moliterno, 2011, p. 143)

The Research-Practice Gaps

The research-practice gap was a byproduct of the inconsistencies between academic theories, realities, and the application of scientific evidence in the corporate sector. According to Tenhiälä et al. (2016, p. 179), the factors which contributed to the research-practice gap were not explicit. For instance, researchers had not established why certain organizations disregarded empirical evidence. Some posited that the HR managers were uninformed of the availability of such data while others posited that their actions were attributed to ignorance of the potential benefits of the prescribed processes. Therefore, the practice gap could be as a result of knowledge limitations or inconsistencies in the application of the knowledge (knowledge-doing gap) (Tenhiälä et al., 2016, p. 180). Similar observations were made by Carless, Rasiah, and Irmer (2009, p. 105). Tenhiälä et al., (2016, p. 182) observed that the practice gaps could be a product of the national cultures. The proposition was informed by the fact that cultures led to the adoption of certain norms, value systems and other practices which reflected the national business environment and regulatory environment. The above assumptions were validated by a survey conducted in South Korea, US, Netherlands, Australia, Spain and Finland Tenhiälä et al. (2016, p. 183). Each of the above-listed countries had different power distances, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and other culture-specific metrics which influenced the HR strategies.

Beyond cultures, education had an impact on the practice gaps. Sanders, van Riemsdijk and Groen (2008, p. 1976) reported that human resource managers with higher educational qualifications were inclined to implement decisions and plans based on empirical evidence. Attitudes towards academic research moderated the relationship between higher educational qualifications and evidence-based practices. Thus, attitude and other non-cognitive attributes were critical to the success of the HR practices. The gaps had a critical impact on the sustainability of the human resource practices given that evidence-based management of human resources and other organizational processes was critical to the success of business strategies in the information age.

One of the most common gaps between research and practice was the approach adopted by the human resource personnel in the interview process. Carless, Rasiah, and Irmer (2009, p. 105) observed that a majority of the human resources preferred to employ unstructured interview questions in place of structured questions during recruitment exercises. The phenomenon was common despite the fact that empirical research recommended the latter because it improved the accuracy of the selection process. Such behaviors were attributed to the knowledge gaps (Al Ariss, Cascio, and Paauwe, 2014, p. 173). Thus, there were no appropriate channels to transfer the research evidence from academia to industry. An important observation was that the practice gaps were most prevalent in the selection and recruitment phases despite the fact that business practices should be founded on reliable empirical evidence.

Fishwick (2011, p. 12) offered new perspectives concerning the popularity of scientific recommendations vis-à-vis traditional practices. The researcher claimed that traditional practices had precedence over scientific evidence due to the nature of organizational cultures. For instance, human resource practitioners gained experience in interviewing applicants from their seniors or individual practice (trial and error). Based on the approaches adopted by the human resource practitioners, it was evident that selection and recruitment of the employees "was art, not science" (Fishwick, 2011, p. 12). Human resources managers had established that on most occasions, intuition was more reliable compared to science. In such cases, empirical evidence was perceived to be less useful given that HR personnel were capable of making accurate decisions without relying on scientific research. The art hypothesis was validated by previous research evidence presented by Highhouse (2008, p. 333). Therefore, on specific cases, the practice gaps were justified.

Short, Keefer and Stone (2009, p. 421) observed that human resource practice was influenced by mental models (and perceptions of what worked and what did not work) and personal theories. The two were further buttressed by theories that they accepted from peers in the HR profession either directly or indirectly (Short, Keefer, and Stone, 2009, p. 422). Direct dissemination of theories is observed during networking events or conferences while practitioner magazines, journals and other knowledge resources constitute the indirect approach. In most occasions, professional experience had a higher precedent compared to research evidence because it had been validated by practice.

Apart from shortcomings in the implementation of the empirical evidence, it was deduced that the blame could not be apportioned to those tasked with implementing scientific evidence, given that there were research gaps on diverse aspects of the human resources. For instance, Renwick, Redman, and Maguire (2013, p. 28) observed that there was a paucity of information relevant to green human resource management and recruitment of personnel in line with the management policy. Other critical gaps included the assessment of the long-term effectiveness of employee training, the link between better pay for senior management and organizational performance.

Chen and Huang (2009, p. 112) established that human resource strategies differed depending on the extent of knowledge management. Knowledge stocks derived from academic and market research enabled organizations to employ innovation in business processes (including HR) On the other hand, firms which did not have a sustainable knowledge management system were at a higher risk of adopting unsustainable workforce planning and recruitment strategies. For instance, some firms had emphasized the role of interviews in the recruitment process even though such exercises had low predictive power. Moreover, some interview processes were informed by racial prejudices (CIPD, 2015, p. 13); white job applicants in the US had a higher chance of securing job interviews compared to African Americans (based on the names in the resume).

Apart from cultures, traditions, and education, the research-practice gap was influenced by the absence of sufficient resources (bank credits, access to finance, and stringent collateral demands) inhibited investments in human capital processes (Popov, 2011, p. 1). The above claim was premised on the fact that financially constrained firms might be obliged to focus on essential aspects of organizational performance such as market competition, resulting in minor investments in HR; such factors had the potential to expand the research-practice gap. The above claim was informed by findings reported by Popov (2011, p. 1). Human resource processes (workforce planning and research-based recruitment) are of secondary importance in the absence of sufficient financial resources.

According to Short, Keefer, and Stone (2009, p. 420), a large body of research evidence was based on personal opinions and "guts" of the researchers in place of reliable empirical evidence. In other cases, the opinions were based on unscientific (informal) findings derived from their networks. The absence of follow-up research, it had become impossible to determine which HR approaches were feasible and which ones were not. Moreover, it was not possible to ascertain the factors which contributed to the success of specific HR practices and impeded the success of others. In the absence of robust measures, the research-practice gap has persisted. In addition to the absence of synergy, the academia had placed greater emphasis on the theoretical constructs surrounding research practice at the expense of concrete action steps (Wang, 2017, p. 224). The absence of a robust connection between the two facets was the root cause of the gap.

The system theory was also employed to elucidate the research-practice gap (Kieser and Leiner, 2009, p. 516). The researchers who subscribed to this school of thought posited that the gap could not be resolved. The claim was founded on the fact that the two systems (academia and HR practice) were partly incompatible. The incompatibility was attributed to the autopoietic and self-referential nature of modern systems. According to the system theory, the communication elements in science could not be naturally integrated into another system, in this case, business operations. In the absence of an authentic integration, the systems "provoke and irritate" each other (Kieser & Leiner, 2009, p. 517). The provocation results in a fundamental change in the system to the extent that other facets are obliged to react. Therefore, given the substantial difference between business science and practice, it was not possible to entirely close the gap.

A Case Study of Practice Gaps in Africa

The practice gaps had a substantial impact on specific sectors such as healthcare where the absence of qualified staff was a risk to the wellbeing of the general population. For instance, a study by the USAID, AMREF, and MSH indicated that most of the healthcare facilities in sub-Saharan Africa experienced a shortage of qualified staff; the extent of the shortage was about 67 percent (USAID-AMREF-MSH, 2009, p. 4). The phenomenon was attributed to the employment of redundant workforce management and recruitment strategies which did not bridge the gap between the demand and the rate of recruitment. The practice gap had contributed to uncoordinated training and unsatisfactory performance of the healthcare system. In other cases, it was reported that the shortage of skilled personnel had contributed to the duality of roles; some employees (clinicians) performed multiple roles as nurses and doctors. The practice gaps were partly attributed to the fact that HR responsibilities were accorded to persons with no prior experience nor training in the field (USAID-AMREF-MSH, 2009, p. 2). The cumulative effect was higher disease prevalence and the loss of life. Therefore, recruitment and workforce planning was not an option but a necessity.

Incentives for Scholars and Managers to Close Practice Gap

The incentives to close the research-practice gaps were attributed to the benefits associated with a coordinated system. For example, stakeholders in the healthcare system in the UK had collaborated with HR practitioners and researchers in workforce planning (Harper et al., 2013, p. 91). In particular, the NHS and the Department of Health partnership ensured that there was a balanced supply of dentists, therapists, and technicians in dental facilities across the UK. The partnership was informed by the growing shortage of trained personnel, and changing dynamics in the patient’s preferences for dental care. The closure of the practice gap was mediated by the Adult Dental Health Survey (ADHS) findings. Based on the NHS case, it was evident that the research-driven policies were a sufficient motivation to bridge the gap.

Research Gaps

In the course of the literature appraisal, it was deduced that there were fundamental practice gaps, which were attributed to the limitations in research, the uptake of research evidence in industry, ignorance, and inconsistencies between research models and HR practices. Some research recommendations were unsuitable in real life applications. For instance, the applicability of the inimitable, firm-specific human capital hypothesis was founded on wrong premises (Campbell, Coff, and Kryscynski, 2012, p. 376). In addition, the research evidence available was inadequate. Therefore, human resource practitioners were not motivated to adopt the specific research recommendations (Kehoe and Wright, 2013, p. 367). On the other hand, human resource practitioners were less willing to implement research recommendations because they were not in tandem with the firm's culture and management strategy. Therefore, the academia and industry were to blame for the pra