Cloning, In Its Many Forms, Acts As A Benefit For Human Development, Prosperity And The Overall Health Of The Environment

Thesis: Cloning, in its many forms, acts as a benefit for human development, prosperity and the overall health of the environment.

I. Background Information

Cloning is among the widely debated concepts in the world of biology and biotechnology. The essential description of the term “cloning” is the inclusion of the processes utilized to generate genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction (National Human Genome Research Institute). Clones have identical genetic make-up with some such as bacteria existing naturally in the environment. Similarly, the existence of human twins and other mammals denotes the process of natural cloning that entails the splitting of a single fertilized egg into more than one embryos with nearly identical DNA (National Human Genome Research Institute). However, the artificial form of cloning is more debatable and entails three major types: gene, reproductive, and therapeutic cloning. Additionally, cloning has a deeper history that spans from decades of concept evolution into modern sophisticated research in genetics and biotechnology.

The major advancements realized in modern biology are largely dependent on DNA cloning and the associated techniques. The evolution in the genetic techniques has facilitated the transition from DNA cloning to gene cloning that is widely practised in the modern research laboratories. The historical background of cloning begins with the discovery of genes and the postulation of the genetic laws by Gregor Mendel in 1800s. The subsequent discoveries by other scientists such as Wilhelm Roux, Hans Spemann, among others widened the knowledge about inheritance patterns and genetic cloning (Mandrich 1). Basing Spemann’s hypothesis, John Gurdon demonstrated the possibility of cloning organisms in 1962 by using the fully differentiated intestinal cells to generate frogs. Other discoveries that have shaped the current-day developments in genetic cloning and research included the isolation of genes, DNA ligases, restriction enzymes, and the recombinant DNA technology findings (Mandrich 2). The invention of DNA sequencing techniques and the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was also a major breakthrough in the modern genetic cloning.

The initial processes of cloning involved the use of the embryo twinning technique in which the first two cells of a differentiating embryo are split similar to the natural creation of twins (Klus). The process was first demonstrated by Spemann in 1928 by splitting and later rejoining a fertilized egg. The Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) is another method demonstrated by Gurdon, which involves the addition of a somatic cell nucleus from a donor into the egg cell of another organism that has had its nucleus removed (Klus). Additionally, the therapeutic cloning method has so far been introduced that entails the harvesting of embryonic stem cells for medical uses. The reproductive cloning, on the other hand, involves the placement of the genetically modified egg into a surrogate mother, who would then harbour its natural development into the intended clone (Klus).

One of the major issues faced by the advancements in cloning technology is the implication in ethical and socio-cultural concerns. The debates have often been raised with regard to the legality and the applicability of the cloning practices, together with the argument over the fears for the unknown. For instance, there have been objections to the use of SCNT because of the destruction of an early-stage embryo (Klus). Another challenge also lies in the cloning of human eggs using SCNT since the process of egg donation is more complicated and paying egg donors for medical research would attract legal penalties. Various attempts have also been made in cloning of human beings but the practice is banned in most of the countries because of the low success rate.

II. Risks and Controversy

Both health risks and controversies still surround the cloning subject, making it one of the widely debated issues in biomedical research. One of the potential risks of cloning is the high prevalence of miscarriages that have proven a low success rate of the cloned embryos (Maas). Scientists and researchers worldwide have tried to produce various animal clones but the majority of the embryos do not survive for a long time. According to the statistics provided by the Genetic Science Learning Center, the survival rate for the cloned embryos only lies between 0.1 and 3 percent (Maas). The other common challenges are the rejection of implanted nuclei by the new cells because of incompatibility, failure of the embryos to implant in the surrogate mothers, and, sometimes, failure of the pregnancy to establish even after a successful implantation leading to the increased rates of miscarriages.

Secondly, cloning has often been associated with health problems and risks of the embryos that would then be borne successfully. Cloned organisms have been reported to have significantly large organs that predispose them to other health complications, which may include circulatory, respiratory, and other body-related misfunction that contribute to the early deaths (Maas). Deformities in several organs and body parts are also common with malfunctions in the immune systems, contributing to prevalent disease development and subsequent deaths. Thirdly, cloning has been reported to significantly interfere with normal “preprogrammed” nature of DNA that may result in abnormal gene expression (Maas). The resultant effects are expressed through anomalies in cell regulation that would eventually lead to gradual cell deaths.

The controversies surrounding cloning are mainly derived from the aspects of the related complications, culture, and the outlined purposes of obtaining the clones. Originally, cloning of humans has been aimed at improving the genetic nature of mankind by targeting donations from people with big accomplishments in games, science, arts, among others. However, the related complications, especially those related to health and well-being of the clones have often sparked debates over their viability and the need for their production (Ayala). Such complications include the recurrent gestational and neonatal failures, with the surviving clones being marked with degenerative disorders and organ abnormalities. Secondly, the controversies often arise from the ethical perspectives with some of the parties arguing that cloning violates the rules of nature, together with a view from cultural and religious setups (Ayala). Additionally, the anomalies caused by the inconsistencies in epigenetic reprogramming are also a potential source of debates and the final stand on the acceptable ethics of human cloning has not so far been reached (Ayala).

III. Benefits to Human Development

Medicinal

Cloning has been considered as one of the biggest milestones in the efforts to find a sustainable solution to some of the existing human conditions. Among the bigger achievements in cloning is the production of monoclonal antibodies that have served as significantly potent therapeutic components. The monoclonal antibodies find wide applications in therapeutics, ranging from treatment of localized disorders to complex conditions such as cancers and autoimmune diseases (Tsuruta et al. 10031).  Cloning of the embryonic cells, also known as stem cells, has found greater applications in organ transplantation and the treatment of degenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s and Huntington’s syndromes through nerve cell replacement. Additionally, cloning is at the centre of regenerative medicine, involving the production of the required cells for therapeutic purposes. For instance, cloning of bone marrow stem cells has been critical for disorder requiring bone marrow transplantation, while blood stem cells are essential in the treatment of sickle-cell anaemia (Ayala). The major contribution of cloning to organ transplantation is that there is minimized rejections and the increase in the number of organs from the available donors.

The current trends in medicinal cloning are the introduction of gene therapy through mitochondrial replacement (MR) that involves the introduction of healthy mitochondrial DNA into the embryo to override the unhealthy mutations (Ayala). Although the practice is now legalized in the United Kingdom, the success rate in MR has been very low with the concurrent inception of other mutations in the developing embryo because of heteroplasmy (Ayala). Additionally, the progression of MR has been hampered by the development of mtDNA disorders during the later years of life.                                 

Sustenance: Crops and Livestock

The applications of cloning in agriculture are far-reaching, having been proved to increase the average yield for both the crops and livestock. In livestock production, an animal would be considered economical if it displays various characteristics, among them high milk production, faster weight gain, production of tender meat, high efficiency in feed utilization, consistency in production, and high resistance to diseases (Page and Ambady 28). However, the traditional ways of acquiring these traits through selective breeding are tedious since they require more focused studies and several breeding combinations to come up with the final desired trait. The invention of the animal genetic and DNA mapping is a solution to such challenges because, with more improved techniques, desired traits have been reproduced through DNA sequencing and replication (Page and Ambady 28).

The molecular methods have significantly improved livestock production. Through animal genomics, the required characteristics have been localized to specific loci, which have then been obtained and used to “develop correlations to performance criteria established for particular traits” (Page and Ambady 28). Thus, the production has been enhanced through more rapid molecular methods that enable the prediction of the animal’s desired traits before its reproduction. Generally, transgenic technology in livestock production has been effective in the milk modification for geese production and infant formula, the inclusion of desired proteins while removing the undesired ones, and improving the milk antibacterial properties (Page and Ambady 30).

Similar to animal cloning, plant transgenics have revolutionized crop production and improved the general aspects of farming. Various crops including grains, fruits, and vegetables have been genetically engineered to provide clones that have potentially high yields and marked resistance to diseases (University of Zurich). Through the apomixis research, hybrid crops have been produced, which are hardy, affordable, can withstand harsh environmental conditions, resistant to pests, and provide high yields (University of Zurich).

IV. Human Prosperity

Since the creation of Dolly the Sheep in 1997, there have been fierce debates over the ethics of cloning, especially concerning the production of human clones. However, humans have continually evidenced their efforts to steer genetic development through ages. Major realizations in the genetic world have been over years and with the advent of modern technology, more discoveries are being made in line with human development. Previously, traits could take a longer time for them to be expressed, possibly through several generations to be manifested. The discovery and adoption of artificial cloning have enabled humans to achieve any desired trait within a single generation (Keyser).

The indulgence into genetic manipulations to achieve the desired characteristics in both crops and animals has so far been widely embraced. However, special considerations have to be deliberated concerning the laid-out ethical guidelines and codes of conduct. Basing on the earlier discoveries, the current practices in cloning have yielded many achievements in farming and medicine. Nonetheless, these achievements have not been adopted into commercial or industrial use owing to the existing challenges and other ethical and legal limitations across the world (Keyser). What remains in the balance is the ongoing research to establish the feasibility of human cloning with the hope that the practice would later be accepted and commercialized.

V. Environmental Health

Despite the enthusiasm about cloning and human genetic engineering practices, there are concerns raised over their potential impact on environmental health. One of the fears posed by cloning technology is the possible impact the cloned species would have on the environment. For instance, the newly released clones into the environment have the potential to cause an imbalance in the regional ecology that may lead to other environmental problems (Patra and Andrew). Secondly, accidents occurring during the creation of genetically engineered bacteria or viruses may lead to their release into the environment causing severe epidemics that are normally fatal and may result into other medical problems in the environment (Patra and Andrew).

The effects imparted on the environment may have devastating outcomes on the humans and other organisms in the affected ecology. Some of the deleterious effects may include the replacement of functional genes with defective genes that would eventually cause other diseases of deformities among humans and other organisms (Patra and Andrew).

Extinct Species

One of the fascinating aspects of cloning is the existing possibility of “resurrecting” extinct species as well as saving the endangered ones from extinction. An example of such attempts is the “resurrection” of a mountain goat named Pyrenean ibex by researchers who utilized domestic goats to create a synonymous clone (Connor). Although the kid was short-lived because of lung deformities, the breakthrough paved way for advances in the revival of long-gone species.

 Although marked with many inconsistencies and unsuccessful attempts, the idea of cloning extinct and endangered animal species has been widely adopted. Thus, intensive research is underway to establish the best ways of developing embryos that would be sustainable to ensure the continuity of a variety of extinct or endangered animal species (Connor).

Conclusion

            Although faced with a mixture of both acceptance and controversy, the concept of cloning still finds a wider application in the current genetic practices. Various risks are associated with genetic modifications, though the contributions of the created clones are not only important in medical therapeutics but also useful in agricultural production. Human prosperity is projected to be dependent on cloning despite the concern of the practices on environmental health. Additionally, cloning offers greater hope from its applicability in the “resurrection” extinct and endangered animal species.

Works Cited

Ayala, Francisco J. “Cloning Humans? Biological, Ethical, and Social Considerations.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 112, no. 29, July 2015, pp. 8879–86. www.pnas.org, doi:10.1073/pnas.1501798112.

Connor, Steve. “The Big Question: Could Cloning Be the Answer to Saving Endangered.” The Independent, 3 Feb. 2009, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-big-question-could-cloning-be-the-answer-to-saving-endangered-species-from-extinction-1543657.html.

Keyser, Luc De. “A Brave New World Of Human Cloning.” Forbes, 29 Sept. 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/stratfor/2016/09/29/a-brave-new-world-of-human-cloning/.

Klus, Helen. “From Mammoths to People: A Brief History of Cloning.” The Star Garden, 27 Apr. 2014, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/History-of-cloning.html.

Maas, Roxanne. “What Are the Risks of Cloning?” LIVESTRONG.COM, 3 Oct. 2017, https://www.livestrong.com/article/254843-what-are-the-risks-of-cloning/.

Mandrich, Luigi. “The Modern Biology: From DNA Discovery To Cell Cloning.” Cloning & Transgenesis, vol. 02, no. 02, 2013. Crossref, doi:10.4172/2168-9849.1000106.

National Human Genome Research Institute. Cloning Fact Sheet - National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). 21 Mar. 2017, https://www.genome.gov/25020028/cloning-fact-sheet/.

Page, Raymond, and Sakthikumar Ambady. “Animal Cloning Applications in Agriculture.” IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine : The Quarterly Magazine of the Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society, vol. 23, Mar. 2004, pp. 27–31. ResearchGate, doi:10.1109/MEMB.2004.1310970.

Patra, Satyajit, and Araromi Adewale Andrew. “Human, Social, and Environmental Impacts of Human Genetic Engineering.” Journal of Biomedical Sciences, vol. 4, no. 4, Oct. 2015. www.jbiomeds.com, doi:10.4172/2254-609X.100014.

Tsuruta, Lilian Rumi, et al. “Genetic Analyses of Per.C6 Cell Clones Producing a Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibody Regarding Productivity and Long-Term Stability.” Applied Microbiology And Biotechnology, vol. 100, no. 23, Dec. 2016, pp. 10031–41. 27678118, EBSCOhost, https://rsm.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mnh&AN=27678118&site=eds-live&scope=site.

University of Zurich. “Improved Harvest for Small Farms Thanks to Naturally Cloned Crops.” ScienceDaily, 28 Jan. 2016, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/160128133028.htm.